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Baseball
Baseball is a sport played between two teams usually of nine players each.
It is a bat-and-ball game in which a pitcher throws (pitches) a hard,
fist-sized, leather-covered ball toward a batter on the opposing team. The
batter attempts to hit the baseball with a tapered cylindrical bat, made of
wood (as required in professional baseball) or a variety of other materials
(as allowed in many nonprofessional games). A team scores runs only when
batting, by advancing its players—primarily via hits—counterclockwise past a
series of four markers called bases arranged at the corners of a ninety-foot
square, or "diamond." The game, played without time restriction, is
structured around nine segments called innings. In each inning, both teams
are given the opportunity to bat and score runs; a team's half-inning ends
when three outs are recorded against that team.
Baseball on the professional, amateur, and youth levels is popular in North
America, Central America, parts of South America, parts of the Caribbean,
and East Asia. The modern version of the game developed in North America
beginning in the eighteenth century. The consensus of historians is that it
evolved from earlier bat-and-ball games, such as rounders, brought to the
continent by British and Irish immigrants. By the late nineteenth century,
baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the United States.
The game is sometimes referred to as hardball in contrast to the very
similar game of softball.
In North America, professional Major League Baseball teams are divided into
the National League (NL) and American League (AL). Each league has three
divisions: East, West, and Central. Every year, the champion of Major League
Baseball is determined by playoffs culminating in the World Series. Four
teams make the playoffs from each league: the three regular season division
winners, plus one wild card team. The wild card is the team with the best
record among the non–division winners in the league. In the National League,
the pitcher is required to bat, per the traditional rules. In the American
League, there is a tenth player, a designated hitter, who bats for the
pitcher. Each major league team has a "farm system" of minor league teams at
various levels. These teams allow younger players to develop as players gain
on-field experience against opponents with similar levels of skill.
The distinct evolution of baseball from among the various bat-and-ball games
is difficult to trace with precision. While there has been general agreement
that modern baseball is a North American development from the older game
rounders, the 2006 book Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots
of the Game, by David Block, argues against that notion.[1] Several
references to "baseball" and "bat-and-ball" have been found in English and
American documents of the early eighteenth century.[2] The earliest known
description is in a 1744 British publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book,
by John Newbery. It contains a wood-cut illustration of boys playing
"base-ball," showing a set-up roughly similar to the modern game, and a
rhymed description of the sport. The earliest known unambiguous American
discussion of "baseball" was published in a 1791 Pittsfield, Massachusetts,
statute that prohibited the playing of the game within 80 yards of the
town's new meeting house.[3] The English novelist Jane Austen made a
reference to children playing "base-ball" on a village green in her book
Northanger Abbey, which was written between 1798 and 1803 (though not
published until 1818).
The first full documentation of a baseball game in North America is Dr. Adam
Ford's contemporary description of a game that took place in 1838 on June 4
(Militia Muster Day) in Beachville, Ontario, Canada; this report was related
in an 1886 edition of Sporting Life magazine in a letter by former St. Marys,
Ontario, resident Dr. Matthew Harris. In 1845, Alexander Cartwright of New
York City led the codification of an early list of rules (the so-called
Knickerbocker Rules), from which today's have evolved. He had also initiated
the replacement of the soft ball used in rounders with a smaller hard
ball.[4] While there are reports of Cartwright's club, the New York
Knickerbockers, playing games in 1845, the game now recognized as the first
in U.S. history to be officially recorded took place on June 19, 1846, in
Hoboken, New Jersey, with the "New York Nine" defeating the Knickerbockers,
23–1, in four innings.
History of baseball in the United States
Semiprofessional baseball started in the United States in the 1860s; in
1869, the first fully professional baseball club, the Cincinnati Red
Stockings, was formed and went undefeated against a schedule of semipro and
amateur teams. By the following decade, American newspapers were referring
to baseball as the "National Pastime" or "National Game." The first attempt
at forming a "major league" was the National Association, which lasted from
1871 to 1875. The "major league" status of the NA is is in dispute among
present-day baseball historians, and modern Major League Baseball does not
include the NA among the major leagues. The National League, which still
exists today, was founded in 1876 in response to the NA's shortcomings.
Several other major leagues formed and failed, but the American League,
established in 1901 as a major league and originating from the minor Western
League (1893), succeeded. While the two leagues were rivals who actively
fought for the best players, often disregarding one another's contracts and
engaging in bitter legal disputes, a modicum of peace was established in
1903, and the World Series was inaugurated that fall. The next year,
however, the National League champion New York Giants did not participate as
their manager, John McGraw, refused to recognize the major league status of
the American League and its champion, the Boston Americans. The following
year, McGraw relented and the Giants played the Philadelphia Athletics in
the World Series.
Compared with the present day, games in the early part of the 20th century
were lower scoring and pitchers were more successful. The "inside game",
whose nature was to "scratch for runs", was played rather more violently and
aggressively than it is today. Ty Cobb said of his era especially, "Baseball
is something like a war!" This period, which has since become known as the
"dead-ball era", ended in the 1920s with several rule changes that gave
advantages to hitters and the rise of the legendary baseball player Babe
Ruth, who showed the world what power hitting could produce and thus changed
the nature of the game. Two of the changes introduced were a move to bring
the outfield fences closer to the infield in the largest parks, and an
introduction of extremely strict rules governing the size, shape and
construction of the ball, causing it to travel farther when hit; the
aggregate result of these two changes was to enable batters to hit many more
home runs.
In 1884, African American Moses Walker (and, briefly, his brother Welday)
had played for the Toledo Blue Stockings of the major league American
Association. An injury ended Walker's major league career, and by the early
1890s, a "gentlemen's agreement" in the form of the baseball color line
effectively barred African-American players from the majors and their
affiliated minor leagues, resulting in the formation of several Negro
Leagues. The first crack in the agreement occurred in 1946, when Jackie
Robinson was signed by the National League's Brooklyn Dodgers and began
playing for their minor league team in Montreal. Finally, in 1947, the major
leagues' color barrier was broken when Robinson debuted with the Dodgers.
Although the transformation was not instantaneous, baseball has since become
fully integrated.
Major League baseball finally made it to the West Coast of the United States
in 1958, when the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants relocated to Los
Angeles and San Francisco respectively. The first American League team on
the West Coast was the Los Angeles Angels, who were founded as an expansion
team in 1961.
Pitchers dominated the game in the 1960s and early 1970s. In the early 1970s
the designated hitter (DH) rule was proposed. The American League adopted
this rule in 1973, though pitchers still bat for themselves in the National
League to this day. The DH rule now constitutes the primary difference
between the two leagues.
Despite the popularity of baseball, and the attendant high salaries relative
to those of average Americans, the players have become dissatisfied from
time to time, as they believed the owners had too much control and retained
an unfair share of the money. Various job actions have occurred throughout
the game's history. Players on specific teams occasionally attempted
strikes, but usually came back when their jobs were sufficiently threatened.
The throwing of the 1919 World Series, the "Black Sox scandal", was in some
sense a "strike" or at least a rebellion by the ballplayers against a
perceived stingy owner. But the strict rules of baseball contracts tended to
keep the players "in line" in general.
This began to change in 1966 when former United Steelworkers chief economist
(and assistant to the president) Marvin Miller became the Baseball Players
Union executive director. The union became much stronger than it had been
previously, especially when the reserve clause was effectively nullified in
the mid-1970s. Conflicts between owners and the players' union led to major
work stoppages in 1972, 1981, and 1994. The 1994 baseball strike led to the
cancellation of the World Series, and was not settled until the spring of
1995. During this period, as well, many of the functions — such as player
discipline and umpire supervision — and regulations that had been
administered separately by the two major leagues' administrations were
united under the rubric of Major League Baseball.
On a happier note, 1995 was the year Cal Ripken, Jr. played in his 2,131st
consecutive game, breaking Lou Gehrig's record. The number of home runs
increased dramatically after the strike. Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa both
shattered Roger Maris's long-standing single season home run record in the
late 1990s. In 2001, Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home
runs in a single season. Bonds has also gone on to hit more homers in his
career than any player other than Hank Aaron. Even though all three sluggers
have been accused in the steroid-abuse scandal of the mid-2000s, their feats
did do a lot at the time to bolster the game's renewed popularity.
Baseball around the world
The history of baseball in Canada has remained closely linked with that of
the sport in the United States. As early as 1877, a professional league, the
International Association, featured teams from both countries. While
baseball is widely played in Canada, and many minor league teams have been
based in the country, the American major leagues did not include a Canadian
club until 1969, when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an
expansion team. In 1977, the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American
League. The Blue Jays won the World Series in 1992 and 1993, the first and
still the only club from outside the United States to do so. In 2004, Major
League Baseball relocated the Expos to Washington, D.C., where the team is
now known as the Nationals.
The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was
founded in 1878 in Cuba, which maintains a rich baseball tradition and whose
national team has been one of the world's strongest since international play
began in the late 1930s. Professional baseball leagues began to form in
other countries between the world wars, including the Netherlands (formed in
1922), Australia (1934), Japan (1936), and Puerto Rico (1938). After World
War II, professional leagues were founded in Italy (1948) and in many Latin
American nations, most prominently Venezuela (1945), Mexico (1945), and the
Dominican Republic (1951). In Asia, Korea (1982), Taiwan (1990), and China
(2003) all have professional leagues.
Many European countries have pro leagues as well, the most successful beside
the Dutch being the Italian league founded in 1948. Compared to those in
Asia and Latin America, the various European leagues and the one in
Australia historically have had no more than niche appeal. Recently, the
sport has begun to grow in popularity in those nations, most notably in
Australia, which won a surprise silver medal in the 2004 Olympic Games. In
2007, the Israel Baseball League, featuring six teams, was launched.
Competition between national teams, such as in the Baseball World Cup and
the Olympic baseball tournament, has been administered by the International
Baseball Federation since its formation in 1938. As of 2004, the
organization has 112 member countries.
Since the early 1970s, the annual Caribbean Series has matched the
league-winning clubs from Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Mexico, and the Dominican
Republic. The Confédération Européene de Baseball (European Baseball
Confederation), founded in 1953, organizes a number of competitions between
clubs from different countries as well as national squads. The inaugural
World Baseball Classic, held in March 2006, had a much higher profile than
previous tournaments featuring national teams, owing to the participation
for the first time of a significant number of players from Major League
Baseball.
The 117th meeting of the International Olympic Committee, held in Singapore
in July 2005, voted not to hold baseball and softball tournaments at the
2012 Summer Olympic Games, but they will remain Olympic sports during the
2008 Summer Olympic Games and will be put to vote again for each succeeding
Summer Olympics. The elimination of baseball and softball from the 2012
Olympic program enabled the IOC to consider adding two different sports to
the program, but no other sport received a majority of votes favoring its
inclusion. While baseball's lack of substantial appeal in much of the world
was a factor; more important is the unwillingness of Major League Baseball
to have a break during the Games so that its players can participate,
something that the National Hockey League now does during the Winter Olympic
Games. Because of the seasonal nature of baseball and the high priority its
fans place on the integrity of major-league statistics from one season to
the next, it would be more difficult to accommodate such a break in MLB.
Gameplay
A simplified version of the rules of baseball is at simplified baseball
rules. The complete Official Rules can be found at MLB.com, the official web
site of Major League Baseball in the United States.
General structure
Baseball is played between two teams of nine players each on a baseball
field, under the authority of one or more officials, called umpires. There
are usually four umpires in major league games; up to six (and as few as
one) may officiate depending on the league and the importance of the game.
There are four bases. Numbered counter-clockwise, first, second and third
bases are cushions (sometimes informally referred to as bags) shaped as 15
in (38 cm) squares which are raised a short distance above the ground;
together with home plate, the fourth "base," they form a square with sides
of 90 ft (27.4 m) called the diamond. Home base (plate) is a pentagonal
rubber slab known as simply home. The playing field is divided into three
main sections:
* The infield, containing the four bases, is for general defensive purposes
bounded by the foul lines and within the grass line (see figure).
* The outfield is the grassed area beyond the infield grass line between the
foul lines, and bounded by a wall or fence.
* Foul territory is the entire area outside the foul lines.
The pitcher's mound is located in the center of the infield. It is an 18
foot (5.5 m) diameter mound of dirt no higher than 10 inches (25.4 cm). Near
the center of the mound is the pitching rubber, a rubber slab positioned 60
feet 6 inches (18.4 m) from home plate. The pitcher must have one foot on
the rubber at the start of every pitch to a batter, but the pitcher may
leave the mound area once the ball is released.
The game is played in nine innings (although it can be played with fewer,
such as it is in little league games) in which each team gets one turn to
bat and try to score runs while the other pitches and defends in the field.
An inning is broken up into two halves in which the away team bats in the
top (first) half, and the home team bats in the bottom (second) half. In
baseball, the defense always has the ball — a fact that differentiates it
from most other team sports. The teams switch every time the defending team
gets three players of the batting team out. The winner is the team with the
most runs after nine innings. If the home team is ahead after the top of the
ninth, play does not continue into the bottom half. In the case of a tie,
additional innings are played until one team comes out ahead at the end of
an inning. If the home team takes the lead anytime during the bottom of the
ninth or of any inning thereafter, play stops and the home team is declared
the winner.
The basic contest is always between the pitcher for the fielding team, and a
batter. The pitcher throws—pitches—the ball towards home plate, where the
catcher for the fielding team waits (in a crouched stance) to receive it.
Behind the catcher stands the home plate umpire. The batter stands in one of
the batter's boxes and tries to hit the ball with a bat. The pitcher must
keep one foot in contact with the top or front of the pitcher's rubber — a
24" x 6" (~ 61 cm x 15 cm) plate located atop the pitcher's mound — during
the entire pitch, so he can only take one step backward and one forward in
delivering the ball. The catcher's job is to receive any pitches that the
batter does not hit and to "call" the game by a series of hand movements
that signal to the pitcher what pitch to throw and where. If the pitcher
disagrees with the call, he will "shake off" the catcher by shaking his
head; he accepts the sign by nodding. Each team has a different set of
signals, though the number 1 is almost universal as a fast ball. The
catcher's role becomes more crucial depending on how the game is going, and
how the pitcher responds to a given situation. Each pitch begins a new play,
which might consist of nothing more than the pitch itself.
Each half-inning, the goal of the defending team is to get three members of
the other team out. A player who is out must leave the field and wait for
his next turn at bat. There are many ways to get batters and baserunners
out; some of the most common are catching a batted ball in the air, tag
outs, force outs, and strikeouts. After the fielding team has put out three
players from the opposing team, that half of the inning is over and the team
in the field and the team at bat switch places; there is no upper limit to
the number that may bat in rotation before three outs are recorded. Going
through the entire order in an inning is referred to as "batting around". It
is indicative of a high scoring inning. A complete inning consists of each
opposing side having a turn (three outs) on offense.
The goal of the team at bat is to score more runs than the opposition; a
player may do so only by batting, then becoming a base runner, touching all
the bases in order (via one or more plays), and finally touching home plate.
To that end, the goal of each batter is to enable baserunners to score or to
become a baserunner himself. The batter attempts to hit the ball into fair
territory — between the baselines — in such a way that the defending players
cannot get them or the baserunners out. In general, the pitcher attempts to
prevent this by pitching the ball in such a way that the batter cannot hit
it cleanly or, ideally, at all.
A baserunner who successfully touches home plate after touching all previous
bases in order scores a run. In an enclosed field, a fair ball hit over the
fence on the fly is normally an automatic home run, which entitles the
batter and all runners to touch all the bases and score. A home run hit with
all bases occupied ('bases loaded') is called a grand slam.
Fielding team
The squad in the field is the defensive team; they attempt to prevent the
baserunners from scoring. There are nine defensive positions, but only two
have a mandatory location (pitcher and catcher). The locations of the other
seven fielders is not specified by the rules, except that at the moment the
pitch is delivered they must be positioned in fair territory and not in the
space between the pitcher and the catcher. These fielders often shift their
positioning in response to specific batters or game situations, and they may
exchange positions with one another at any time. The nine positions most
commonly used (with the number scorekeepers use) are: pitcher (1), catcher
(2), first baseman (3), second baseman (4), third baseman (5), shortstop
(6), left fielder (7), center fielder (8), and right fielder (9). Note that,
in rare cases, teams may use dramatically differing schemes, such as
switching an outfielder for an infielder. The numbering convention was
established by Henry Chadwick. The reason the shortstop seems out of order
has to do with the way fielders positioned themselves in the early years of
the game.
The battery
The battery is composed of the pitcher, who stands on the rubber of the
mound, and the catcher, who squats behind home plate. These are the two
fielders who always deal directly with the batter on every pitch, hence the
term "battery", coined by Henry Chadwick and later reinforced by the implied
comparison to artillery fire.
The pitcher's main role is to pitch the ball toward home plate with the goal
of getting the batter out. Pitchers also play defense by fielding batted
balls, covering bases (for a potential tag out or force out on an
approaching runner), or backing up throws. The catcher's main role is to
receive the pitch if the batter does not hit it. Together with the pitcher
and coaches, the catcher plots game strategy by suggesting different pitches
and by shifting the starting positions of the other fielders. Catchers are
also responsible for defense in the area near home plate.
The infielders
The four infielders are the first baseman, second baseman, shortstop, and
third baseman. Originally the first, second and third basemen played very
near their respective bases, and the shortstop generally played "in" (hence
the term), covering the area between second, third, and the pitchers box, or
wherever the game situation required. As the game evolved, the fielding
positions changed to the now-familiar "umbrella", with the first and third
baseman generally positioned a short distance toward second base from their
bases, the second baseman to the right side of second base standing farther
away from the base than any other infielder, and the shortstop playing to
the left of second base, as seen from the batter's perspective, filling in
the gaps.
The first baseman's job consists largely of making force plays at first base
on ground balls hit to the other infielders. When an infielder picks up a
ball from the ground hit by the batter, he must throw it to the first
baseman who must catch the ball and maintain contact with the base before
the batter gets to it for the batter to be out. The need to do this quickly
often requires the first baseman to stretch one of his legs to touch first
base while catching the ball simultaneously. The first baseman must be able
to catch the ball very well and usually wears a specially designed mitt. The
first baseman fields balls hit near first base. The first baseman also has
to receive throws from the pitcher in order to tag runners out who have
reached base safely. The position is less physically challenging than the
other positions, but there is still a lot of skill involved. Infielders
don't always make good throws to first base, so it is the first baseman's
job to field any ball thrown toward him cleanly. Older players who can no
longer fulfill the demands of their original positions also often become
first basemen.
The second baseman covers the area to the first-base side of second base and
provides backup for the first baseman in bunt situations. He also is a
cut-off for the outfield. This is when the outfielder doesn't have to throw
the full distance from him/her to the base, but just to the cut-off. The
shortstop fills the critical gap between second and third bases — where
right-handed batters generally hit ground balls — and also covers second or
third base and the near part of left field. This player is also a cut-off
for the outfield. This position is the most demanding defensively, so a good
shortstop doesn't need to necessarily be a good batter. The third baseman's
primary requirement is a strong throwing arm, in order to make the long
throw across the infield to the first baseman. Quick reaction time is also
important for third basemen, as they tend to see more sharply hit balls than
the other infielders, thus the nickname for third base as the "hot corner."
Also, because there are far more right-handed hitters than lefty's, there
are more ground balls hit to the left side of the infield due to the natural
motion of the batter's swing.
The outfielders
The three outfielders, left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder, are
so named from the catcher's perspective looking out onto the field. The
right fielder generally has the strongest arm of all the outfielders due to
the need to make throws on runners attempting to take third base. The center
fielder has more territory to cover than the corner outfielders, so this
player must be quick and agile with a strong arm to throw balls in to the
infield; as with the shortstop, teams tend to emphasize defense at this
position. Also, the center fielder is considered the outfield leader, and
left- and right-fielders often cede to his direction when fielding fly
balls. Of all outfielders, the left fielder often has the weakest arm, as
they generally do not need to throw the ball as far in order to prevent the
advance of any baserunners. The left fielder still requires good fielding
and catching skills, and tends to receive more balls than the right fielder
due to the fact that right-handed hitters, who are much more common, tend to
"pull" the ball into left field. Each outfielder runs to "back up" a nearby
outfielder who attempts to field a ball hit near both their positions.
Outfielders also run to back up infielders on batted balls and thrown balls,
including pick-off attempts from the pitcher or from the catcher.
Defensive strategy
Pitching
Effective pitching is vitally important to a baseball team, as pitching is
the key for the defensive team to retire batters and to preventing runners
from getting on base. A full game usually involves over one hundred pitches
thrown by each team. However, most pitchers begin to tire before they reach
this point. In previous eras, pitchers would often throw up to four complete
games (all nine innings) in a week. With new advances in medical research
and thus a better understanding of how the human body functions and tires
out, starting pitchers tend more often to throw fractions of a game
(typically six or seven innings, depending on their performance) about every
five days (though a few complete games do still occur each year).
Multiple pitchers are often needed in a single game, including the starting
pitcher and relief pitcher(s). Pitchers are substituted for one another like
any other player (see below), and the rules do not limit the number of
pitchers that can be used in a game; the only limiting factor is the size of
the squad, naturally. In general, starting pitchers are not used in relief
situations except sometimes during the post-season when every game is vital.
If a game runs into many extra innings, a team may well empty its bullpen.
If it then becomes necessary to use a "position player" as a pitcher, major
league teams generally have certain players pre-designated as emergency
relief pitchers, to avoid the embarrassment of using a less skillful player.
In baseball's early years, squads were smaller, and relief pitchers were
relatively uncommon, with the starter normally remaining for the entire game
unless he was either thoroughly ineffective or became injured; today, with a
much greater emphasis on pitch count (100 being the "magic number" in
general), over the course of a single game each team will frequently use
from two to five pitchers. In the 2005 ALCS, all four of the Chicago White
Sox victories were complete games by the starters, a highly noteworthy event
in the modern game.
Although a pitcher can only take one step backward and one forward, he has
to step off the mound to throw over to first base if he is a right handed
pitcher. While delivering the ball, the pitcher has a great arsenal at his
disposal in the variation of location, velocity, movement, and arm location
(see types of pitches). Most pitchers attempt to master two or three types
of pitches; some pitchers throw up to 6 types of pitches with varying
degrees of control. Common pitches include a fastball, which is the ball
thrown at high speed; a curveball, which is made to curve by rotation
imparted by the pitcher; and a change-up, which seeks to mimic the delivery
of a fastball but arrives at significantly lower velocity.
To illustrate pitching strategy, consider the "fastball/change-up"
combination: The average major-league pitcher can throw a fastball around 90
miles per hour (145 km/h), and a few pitchers have even exceeded 100 miles
per hour (161 km/h). The change-up is thrown somewhere between 75 to 85
miles per hour (121 to 137 km/h). Since the batter's timing is critical to
hitting a pitch, a batter swinging to hit what looks like a fastball, would
be terribly fooled (swing and miss, hopefully) when the pitch turns out to
be a much slower change-up.
Some pitchers choose to throw using the 'submarine style,' a very efficient
sidearm or near-underhand motion. Pitchers with a submarine delivery are
often very difficult to hit because of the angle and movement of the ball
once released. Walter Johnson, who threw one of the fastest fastballs in the
history of the game, threw sidearm (though not submarine) rather than a
normal overhand. True underhanded pitching is permitted in Major League
Baseball. However, it is difficult to generate enough velocity and movement
with the underhand motion.
Fielding strategy
Only the pitcher's and catcher's locations are fixed, and then only at the
beginning of each pitch. Thus, the players on the field move around as
needed to defend against scoring a run. Many variations of this are
possible, as location depends upon the situation. Circumstances such as the
number of outs, the count (balls and strikes) on the batter, the number and
speed of runners, the ability of the fielders, the ability of the pitcher,
the type of pitch thrown, the tendencies of the hitter, and the inning cause
the fielders move to more strategic locations on the field. Common defensive
strategies include: playing for the bunt, trying to prevent a stolen base,
moving to a shallow position to throw out a runner at home, playing at
"double play depth", and moving fielders to locations where hitters are most
likely to hit the ball.
Batting team
Batters and runners
The ultimate goal of the team at bat is to score runs. To accomplish this
task, the team at bat successively (in a predetermined order called a lineup
or batting order) sends its nine players to the batter's box (adjacent to
home plate) where they become batters. (Each team sets its batting lineup at
the beginning of the game. Changes to the lineup are tightly limited by the
rules of baseball and must be communicated to the umpires, who have the
substitutions announced for the opposing team and fans. See Substitutions
below.)
A batter's turn at the plate is called a plate appearance. Batters can
advance to first base safely in one of seven methods: a base-hit
(abbreviated 'H') or walk ('BB' for base-on-balls) are by far the most
common; being hit-by-the-pitch ('HBP'), reaching by error ('E') or fielder's
choice ('FC') are less common; and somewhat rarely a player may reach base
by virtue of interference ('I') or a passed ball ('PB') on a strike-out,
where the player is allowed to run and reach base safely if he can. When the
batter hits a fair ball, he must run to first base, and may continue or stop
at any base unless he is put out. A successful hit occurs when the batter
reaches a base: reaching only first base is a single; reaching second base,
a double; third base, a triple; and a hit that allows the batter to touch
all bases in order on the same play is a home run, whether the ball is hit
over the fence does not matter (this type of home run is usually referred to
as an "inside-the-park homerun"). Once a runner is held to a base, he may
attempt to advance at any time, but is not required to do so unless the
batter or another runner displaces him (called a force play). A batter
always drops his bat when running the bases; otherwise, the bat would slow
him down and could give rise to a call of interference if it were to contact
the ball or a fielder.
Depending on the way the ball comes off the bat, the play has different
names. A batted ball is called a fly ball if it were hit in the air in a way
causing the fielder to catch it on its descent. A line drive is like a fly
ball, but the ball is hit with such force that its trajectory seems level to
the ground. A batted ball which is not hit into the air, and which touches
the ground within the infield before it can be caught, is called a ground
ball. When a ball is hit outside the foul line, it is a foul ball, requiring
the batter and all runners to return to their respective bases.
Once the batter and any existing runners have all stopped at a base or been
put out, the ball is returned to the pitcher, and the next batter comes to
the plate. After the opposing team bats in its own order and three more outs
are recorded, the first team's batting order will continue again from where
it left off.
When a runner reaches home plate, he scores a run and is no longer a base
runner. He must leave the playing area until his spot in the order comes up
again. A runner may only circle the bases once per plate appearance and thus
can score no more than a single run.
Batting
Each plate appearance consists of a series of pitches, in which the pitcher
throws the ball towards home plate while a batter is standing in the
batter's box (either right or left). With each pitch, the batter must decide
whether to swing the bat at the ball in an attempt to hit it. The pitches
arrive quickly, so the decision to swing must be made in less than a tenth
of a second, based on whether the ball is hittable and in the strike zone, a
region defined by the area directly above home plate and between the hollow
beneath the batter's knee and the midpoint between the top of the shoulders
and the top of the uniform pants. In addition to swinging at the ball, a
batter who wishes to put the ball in play may hold his bat over home plate
and attempt to tap a pitch lightly; this is called a bunt. Good bunting
technique has been described as "catching the ball with the bat."
On any pitch, if the batter swings at the ball and misses, he is charged
with a strike. If the batter does not swing, the home plate umpire judges
whether the ball passed through the strike zone. If the ball, or any part of
it, passed through the zone, it is ruled a strike; otherwise, it is called a
ball. The number of balls and strikes thrown to the current batter is known
as the count; the count is always given balls first (except in Japan, where
it is reversed), then strikes (such as 3-2 or "three and two", also known as
a "full count," which would be 3 balls and 2 strikes).
If the batter swings and makes contact with the ball, but does not put it in
play in fair territory—a foul ball—he is charged with an additional strike,
except when there are already two strikes. Thus, a foul ball with two
strikes leaves the count unchanged. (However, a noted exception to this rule
is that a ball bunted foul with two strikes is a strikeout.) If a pitch is
batted foul or fair and a member of the defensive team is able to catch it,
before the ball strikes the ground, the batter is declared out. In the event
that a bat contacts the ball, but the ball continues sharply and directly to
the catcher's mitt and is caught by the catcher, it is a foul tip, which is
same as an ordinary strike.
When three strikes occur on a batter, it is a strikeout and the batter is
automatically out unless the pitch is not caught by the catcher or if the
pitch bounces before it is caught. It is then ruled an uncaught third
strike, a violation of the third strike rule:[5]) If the catcher drops the
third strike the batter is permitted to attempt to advance to first base. In
this case, the batter is not out (although the pitcher is awarded a
strikeout). The catcher can try to get the batter out by tagging him with
the ball or throwing the ball to first base and forcing him out. (See Doug
Eddings (2005 ALCS) and Mickey Owen (1941 World Series) for famous examples
of dropped third strikes that dramatically altered the course of post-season
series.)
On the fourth ball, it is called a walk, and the batter becomes a runner,
and is entitled to advance to first base without risk of being put out,
called a base on balls or a walk (abbreviated BB). If a pitch touches the
batter (or the batter's clothes), the umpire declares a hit by pitch
(abbreviated HBP) and the batter is awarded first base, unless the umpire
determines that the ball was in the strike zone when it hit the batter, or
that the batter did not attempt to avoid being hit. In practice, neither
exception is ever called unless the batter obviously tries to get hit by the
pitch; even standing still in the box will virtually always be overlooked,
and the batter awarded first. In addition, if the batter swings at a pitch
that hits him, it counts as a strike. If the catcher's mitt, catcher's mask,
or any part of the catcher comes in contact with the batter and/or the
batter's bat as the batter is attempting to hit a pitch, the batter is
awarded first base, ruled "catcher's interference".
Baserunning
Once a batter becomes a runner and reaches first base safely, he is said to
be "on" that base until he attempts to advance to the next base, until he is
put out, or until the half-inning ends. When comparing two or more runners
on the basepaths, the runner farther along is called a lead runner or a
preceding runner; the other runner is called a trailing runner or a
following runner . Runners on second or third base are considered to be in
scoring position since ordinary hits, even singles, will often allow them to
score.
A runner legally touching a base is "safe"—he may not be put out. Runners
may attempt to advance from base to base at any time (except when the ball
is dead), but must attempt to advance when forced--when all previous bases
are occupied and the batter becomes a runner. When a ball is hit in the air,
a fly ball, and caught by the defending team, runners must return and touch
the base they occupied at the time of the pitch—called tagging up—after the
ball is first touched. Once they do this, they may attempt to advance at
their own risk.
Only one runner may occupy a base at a time; if two runners are touching a
base at once, the trailing runner is in jeopardy and will be out if tagged,
unless he was forced--in which case the lead runner is out when tagged for
failing to reach his force base. Either such occurrence is very rare. Thus,
after a play, at most three runners may be on the basepaths, one on each
base--first, second, and third. When three runners are on base, this is
called bases loaded.
Baserunners may attempt to advance, or steal a base, while the pitcher is
throwing a pitch. The pitcher, in lieu of delivering the pitch, may try to
prevent this by throwing the ball to one of the infielders in order to tag
the runner; if successful, it is called a pick-off. If the runner attempts
to steal the next base but is tagged out before reaching it safely, he is
caught stealing. An illegal attempt by the pitcher to deceive a runner,
among other pitching violations, is called a balk, allowing the runners to
advance one base without risk of being put out.
Another fundamental tenet of the rules of baseball is that a runner
originally ruled out can subsequently be ruled safe, but once a runner is
ruled safe he cannot be called out on the same play. A runner initially
called out can be subsequently ruled safe if the fielder putting the runner
out drops the ball (on either a tag or force play), pulls his foot off the
base (in the case of a force play), or otherwise illegally obstructs a
runner from reaching a base that he otherwise would have reached safely.
Batting and base running strategy
The goal of each batter is to become a base runner himself (by a base hit, a
base on balls, being hit by the pitch, a fielding error, or fielder's
choice) or to help move other base runners along (by sacrifice bunt,
sacrifice fly, or hit and run).
Batters attempt to "read" pitchers through pre-game preparation by studying
the tendencies of pitchers and by talking to other batters that previously
faced the pitcher. While batting, batters attempt to "read" pitches by
looking for clues that the pitcher or catcher reveal. These clues (also
referred to as "tipping pitches") include movements of the pitchers arms,
shoulders, body, etc, or the positioning of the catcher's feet and glove.
Batters can attempt to "read" the spin of a ball early in the pitch to
anticipate its trajectory. Batters also remain keenly aware of the count
during their at bat. The count is considered to be in the batter's favor
when there are more balls than strikes (e.g.two balls and no strikes). This
puts pressure on the pitcher to throw a strike to avoid a walk so the batter
is more likely to get an easier pitch to hit and can look for a particular
pitch in a particular zone or take a riskier or bigger swing. The count is
considered to be in the pitcher's favor when there are fewer balls than
strikes (e.g. no balls and two strikes). This gives the pitcher more freedom
to try enticing the batter to swing at a pitch outside the strike zone or
throwing a pitch that is harder to control (e.g. a curve, slider or
splitter), but that is also harder to hit. Thus the batter will take a more
protective swing. A major strategy in batting at competitive levels of
baseball is patient hitting. An example of patient hitting is when a batter
has a zero strike count the batter will almost always look for his perfect
pitch. One strike hitting is very similar to no strike hitting and the
batter usually is still looking for a good pitch to hit. Two strike hitting,
the strategy is changed where the batter will protect the plate by fouling
off pitches until the batter is able to find a pitch to hit. This style of
hitting is known as patience at the plate. This style of hitting allows the
hitter to look for a good pitch to hit and make the pitcher throw more
pitches so that the pitcher will tire out faster. This is critical if the
batting team is facing a very skilled pitcher who if allowed to will take
over the game with his ability to get batters to do what he wants them to do
with the pitches that he makes.
In general, base running is a tactical part of the game requiring good
judgment by runners (and their coaches) to assess the risk in attempting to
advance. During tag plays, a good slide can affect the outcome of the play.
Managers will sometimes simultaneously send a runner and require the batter
to swing (a hit-and-run play) in an attempt to advance runners. On a
hit-and-run play the batter will often try to hit to the opposite field (the
opposite of the natural tendency for the right handed hitter to pull the
ball to left field and vice versa). Hitting to the opposite field will
likely find an opening in the infield vacated by the fielder covering second
base. This is because coverage of second base against a steal is best
achieved by whichever fielder is closer to second base, the shortstop or the
second baseman; and such positioning is aimed at defending against the
natural tendency of the hitter.
A batter can also attempt to move a baserunner forward by "sacrificing" his
at-bat. This can be done by bunting the ball, hitting a fly ball far enough
in the air that a baserunner can advance after the catch, or simply making
contact with the ball on a hit-and-run play.
During the course of play many offensive and defensive players run close to
each other, and during tag plays, the defensive player must touch the
offensive player. Although baseball is considered a non-contact sport, a
runner may be allowed to make potentially dangerous contact with a fielder
as part of an attempt to reach base, unless that fielder is fielding a
batted ball. (Noted exceptions to the dangerous contact rule are found
throughout amateur competitions, including youth leagues, high school, and
college baseball.) A good slide is often more advantageous than such
contact, and "malicious" contact by runners is typically prohibited as
offensive interference. The most common occurrence of contact of this nature
is at home plate between the runner and the catcher, as the catcher is well
padded and locked into position that completely blocks home plate from the
runner, and the runner will often try to knock the ball out of the catcher's
hand by running him over. Since the catcher is seen (symbolically and
literally) as the last line of defense, it seems natural that the more
physical play happens here.
Innings and determining a winner
An inning consists of each team having one turn in the field and one turn to
hit, with the visiting team batting before the home team. A standard game
lasts nine innings, although some leagues (such as high school baseball and
Little League) play fewer. The team with the most runs at the end of the
game wins. If the home team is ahead after eight-and-a-half innings have
been played, it is declared the winner, and the last half-inning is not
played. If the home team is trailing or tied in the ninth inning or beyond
and they score to take the lead, the game ends as soon as the winning run
touches home plate; however, if the last batter hits a home run to win the
game, he and any runners on base are all permitted to score.
If both teams have scored the same number of runs at the end of a
regular-length game, a tie is avoided by the addition of extra innings. As
many innings as necessary are played until one team has the lead at the end
of an inning. Thus, the home team always has a chance to respond if the
visiting team scores in the top half of the inning; this gives the home team
a small tactical advantage. In theory, a baseball game could go on forever;
in practice, however, they eventually end. In addition to that rule, a game
might theoretically end if both the home and away team were to run out of
players to substitute (see Substitutions, below). In Major League Baseball,
the longest game played was a 26-inning affair between the Brooklyn Robins
and Boston Braves on May 1, 1920. The game, called on account of darkness,
ended in a 1-1 tie. Two minor-league teams, the Pawtucket Red Sox and
Rochester Red Wings, played a 33-inning game in 1981.
In Major League Baseball, games end with tie scores only because conditions
have made it impossible to continue play. A tie game does not count as an
official game in the standings unless it is finished later or replayed;
however, individual player statistics from tie games are counted. Inclement
weather may also shorten games, but at least five innings must be played for
the game to be considered official; four-and-a-half innings are enough if
the home team is ahead. Previously, curfews and the absence of adequate
lighting caused more ties and shortened games. Also, with more modern
playing surfaces better able to handle light rains, the process for calling
or shortening a game due to weather has changed; it is more common than in
the past to delay a game as much as 2 hours before a cancellation; also, a
delay usually does not occur anymore until the rain is moderate-heavy and/or
there is standing water on some part of the playing field.
In Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball, if the score remains tied after
nine innings, up to three extra innings may be played before the game is
called a tie. Some youth or amateur leagues will end a game early if one
team is ahead by ten or more runs, a practice known as the "mercy rule" or
"slaughter rule". Rarely, a game can also be won or lost by forfeit.
There is a short break between each half-inning during which the new
defensive team takes the field and the pitcher warms up. Traditionally, the
break between the top half and the bottom half of the seventh inning is
known as the seventh-inning stretch. During the "stretch," fans in the
United States often sing the chorus of "Take Me Out to the Ball Game;" since
the September 11, 2001 attacks, "God Bless America" has often been added to
it, especially at games in New York City.
Substitutions
Each team is allowed to substitute for any player at any time the ball is
dead. A batter who replaces another batter is referred to as a pinch hitter;
similarly, a pinch runner may be used as a replacement for a baserunner. Any
player who replaces another player between innings is known as a "defensive
replacement". Any replacement is a permanent substitution; the replaced
player may not return to the game.
It is common for a pitcher to pitch for several innings and then be removed
in favor of a relief pitcher. Because pitching is a specialized skill, most
pitchers are relatively poor hitters; it is common to substitute for a
pitcher when he is due to bat. This pinch hitter is typically then replaced
by a relief pitcher when the team returns to the field on defense, but more
complicated substitutions are possible, most notably the double switch.
Many amateur leagues allow a starting player who was removed to return to
the game in the same position in the batting order under a re-entry rule.
Youth leagues often allow free and open substitution to encourage player
participation.
The designated hitter (or DH) is a player whose sole purpose is to hit when
it would normally be the pitcher's turn (or, if the pitcher is a good
batter, another weaker batter). A few leagues, notably Major League
Baseball's American League (which instituted the DH in 1973 to boost
offensive output), allow designated hitters. This is not considered a
substitution but rather a position, albeit a purely offensive one. A
designated hitter does not play in the field on defense and may remain in
the game regardless of changes in pitchers. The use of the designated hitter
is opposed by many baseball traditionalists, but it is used today at most
levels of baseball in the United States—high school, college, minor
leagues—and internationally, including in the Olympics. If the designated
hitter is moved to a fielding position, the team loses the DH, and the
fielder whose position was taken by the former DH is replaced by the
pitcher, who assumes that player's position in the hitting lineup.
Rosters
The number of players on a Major League roster is dictated by the labor
agreements worked out between players and management. According to the
current rules, a team may have a maximum of 25 men on a roster from Opening
Day until August 31. After that, teams may call up additional personnel, up
to a maximum of 40 players on the active roster, with the exception of the
postseason, where rosters are fixed at 25 men.
Other personnel
Any baseball game involves one or more umpires, who make rulings on the
outcome of each play. At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the
catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call each pitch a ball
or a strike. Additional umpires may be stationed near the bases, thus making
it easier to see plays in the field. In Major League Baseball, four umpires
are used for each game, one near each base. In the all-star game and
playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield
along either foul line.
Baseball's unique style
Baseball is unique among American sports in several ways. This uniqueness is
a large part of its longstanding appeal and strong association with the
American psyche. The philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen described baseball as
a national religion. Many Americans believe that baseball is the ultimate
combination of skill, timing, athleticism, and strategy. In this, baseball
is similar to its cousin game cricket: in many Commonwealth nations, cricket
and the culture surrounding it hold a similar place and affection to
baseball's role in American culture.
The lure of baseball is in its subtleties: situational defense, pitch
location, pitch sequence, base running, batting strategies, statistics,
ballparks, history, and player personalities. It's been noted that the game
itself has no time limit, and its playing surface, rather than rigidly
rectangular and standardized, extends theoretically to eternity from a
single point (home plate) to beyond its own fences. For the avid fan, the
game—even during its slowest points—is never boring because of these
nuances. Therefore, a full appreciation of baseball naturally requires some
knowledge of the rules; it also requires deep observation of those endearing
and enduring qualities that give baseball its unique style.
Time element
Basketball, ice hockey, American football, and soccer all use a clock, and
games often end by a team with the lead killing the clock rather than
competing directly against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no
clock; a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are
not constrained by time. Other sports popular on the professional level in
the U.S. that do not have a time limit are tennis and golf, although these
are individual as opposed to team sports.
In recent decades, observers have criticized professional baseball for the
length of its games, with some justification as the time required to play a
baseball game has increased steadily through the years. At the turn of the
20th century, games typically took an hour and a half to play.[citation
needed] In the 1920s, they averaged just under two hours, which eventually
ballooned to 2 hours and 38 minutes in 1960.[6] Though in 1975, the average
length of games was 2 hours 25 minutes, according to the Elias Sports
Bureau.[7] By the turn of the 21st century, games had got so long that Major
League Baseball's goal in 2004 was to get the average game down to 2 hour
and 45 minutes, after coming close in 2003 at 2 hours and 46 minutes.[8]
The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half-innings
for television commercials, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a
slower pace of play. In response, Major League Baseball mandated a maximum
break between half-innings, while instructing umpires to be stricter in
enforcing speed-up rules and the size of the strike zone.[9] [10]
Although the official rules specify that when the bases are empty, the
pitcher should deliver the ball within 12 seconds of receiving it (with the
penalty of a ball called if he fails to do so), this rule is rarely, if
ever, enforced. The umpire also has the option of calling a ball if there
are runners on base, but this is also rarely, if ever, enforced.[citation
needed] The official rules also require the batter to remain in the batter's
box at all times when at bat — another rule that is 'observed in the
breach'.
Individual and team
Baseball is fundamentally a team sport—even a franchise financially blessed
enough to afford two or three Hall of Fame-caliber players cannot count on
success. Yet it places individual players under great pressure and scrutiny.
The pitcher must make good pitches or risk losing the game; the hitter has a
mere fraction of a second to decide what pitch has been thrown and whether
to swing at it. While managers and coaches can signal players to pursue
certain strategies, no one can help the pitcher while he pitches or the
hitter while he bats. If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder, as
the last line of defense, makes the lone decision to try to catch it or play
it on the bounce. Baseball's history is full of heroes and goats—men who in
the heat of the moment (the "clutch") distinguished themselves with a timely
hit or catch, or an untimely strikeout or error.
The uniqueness of each baseball park
Unlike the majority of sports, baseball parks do not have to follow a strict
set of guidelines. With the exception of the strict rules on the dimensions
of the infield, discussed above, the official rulessimply state that fields
built after June 1, 1958 must have a minimum distance of 325 feet (99 m)
from home plate to the fences in left and right field and 400 (121 m) feet
to center. This rule (a footnote to official rule 1.04) was passed
specifically in response to the fence at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum,
which was not originally designed for baseball, and thus was only 251 feet
(77 m) to the left field pole (1 foot (0.3 m) over the bare minimum required
by the rules). Major league teams often skirt this rule. For example, Minute
Maid Park's Crawford Boxes are only 315 feet (96 m), and with a fence much
lower than the famous "Green Monster" at Fenway Park which is labeled as 310
feet away and 37-foot, two-inches tall. And there are no rules at all
regulating the height of "fences, stands or other obstructions", other than
the assumption that they exist. However, teams are required to obtain
approval from the League Office when constructing new stadiums, or when
proposing alterations.
Because of this flexibility, there are numerous variations in park
configuration, from different lengths to the fences to uneven playing
surfaces to massive or minimal amounts of foul territory. The differing
styles create a unique sense of ambiance in each location, something that
many fans find alluring (and even a source of civic pride). All of these
factors, as well as local variations in altitude, climate and game
scheduling, can affect the nature of the games played at those ballparks.
Certain stadiums eventually get labeled as either a "pitcher's park" or a
"hitter's park", depending on which side benefits more from the unique
factors present. Chicago's Wrigley Field, strangely enough, can be either,
depending on the wind direction at any given time. This is due to Chicago's
direct relationship with Lake Michigan. Anytime the wind blows in, it causes
drag on the baseball leading to more fly ball outs. In contrast, when the
wind blows out, home runs are more likely to reach the streets.
In the end, the lack of a consistent, standardized playing field has caused
some debate, particularly when comparing players statistics and career
records. For example, hitting a ball off the Green Monster in Boston results
in a hit, where at San Francisco the hit may have been caught.
Statistics
As with many sports, and perhaps even more so, statistics are very important
to baseball. Statistics have been kept for the Major Leagues since their
creation, and presumably statistics were around even before that. General
managers, baseball scouts, managers, and players alike study player
statistics to help them choose various strategies to best help their
team.[11]
Traditionally, statistics like batting average for batters—the number of
hits divided by the number of at bats—and earned run average—approximately
the number of runs given up by a pitcher per nine innings—have governed the
statistical world of baseball. However, the advent of sabermetrics has
brought an onslaught of new statistics that perhaps better gauge a player's
performance and contributions to his team from year to year.
Some sabermetrics have entered the mainstream baseball statistic world.
On-base plus slugging (OPS) is a somewhat complicated formula that some say
gauges a hitter's performance better than batting average. It combines the
hitter's on base percentage—hits plus walks plus hit by pitches divided by
at bats plus bases on balls plus hit by pitches plus sacrifice flies—with
their slugging percentage—total bases divided by at bats. Walks plus hits
per inning pitched (or WHIP) gives a good representation of a pitcher's
abilities; it is calculated exactly as its name suggests.
Also important are more specific statistics for particular situations. For
example, a certain hitter's ability to hit left-handed pitchers might cause
his manager to give him more chances to face lefties. Some hitters hit
better with runners in scoring position, so an opposing manager, knowing
this statistic, might elect to intentionally walk him in order to face a
worse hitter.
There are some other statistics, perhaps less important than those
mentioned. For hitters, these include at-bats, the number of hits and
extra-base hits, and runs batted in, or RBIs. For pitchers, these include
total innings pitched, strikeouts per nine innings, walks, and the pitch
count.
Popularity
Baseball is most popular in East Asia and the Americas, although in South
America its popularity is mainly limited to the northern portion of the
continent. In The Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Japan, Cuba, Panama,
Venezuela, Nicaragua, South Korea, and Taiwan, it is one of the most popular
sports. The United States is the birthplace of baseball, where it has long
been regarded as more than just a "major sport"; for many decades, it has
been popularly referred to as the "national pastime" and Major League
Baseball has been given a unique monopoly status by the Supreme Court of the
United States.[1] Although the three most popular professional team sports
in the United States are ball games—baseball, basketball and American
football—baseball's historical popularity was so great that even today the
word "ballgame" in the United States almost always refers to a game of
baseball (except in the American South, where the word is also used in
association with football), and "ballpark" invariably refers to a baseball
field.
Baseball has often been a barometer of the fabled American "melting pot", as
immigrants from different regions have tried to "make good" in various areas
including sports. In the 19th century, baseball was populated with many
players of Irish or German extraction. A number of Native Americans had
successful careers especially in the early 1900s. Italians and Poles
appeared on many rosters during the 1920s and 1930s. Black Americans came on
strong starting in the late 1940s after the barriers had been lifted, and
continue to form a significant contingent. By the 1960s, Hispanics had
started to make the scene, and had become a dominant force by the 1990s. In
the 21st century, East Asians have been appearing in increasing numbers.
While baseball is perhaps the most popular sport in the United States and is
certainly one of the two most popular along with football, it is difficult
to determine which is more popular because of the wide discrepancy in number
of games per season. For example, the total attendance for major league
games is roughly equal to that of all other American professional team
sports combined, but football gets higher television ratings, both a
function in part of the long (162-game) baseball season and short (16-game)
football season. According to Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig, both revenue
and attendance are currently higher than at any previous point in the
history of the game. [2]
Organized leagues
Baseball is played at a number of levels, by amateur and professionals, and
by the young and the old. Youth programs use modified versions of adult and
professional baseball rules, which may include a smaller field, easier
pitching (from a coach, a tee, or a machine), less contact, base running
restrictions, limitations on innings a pitcher can throw, liberal balk
rules, and run limitations, among others. Since rules vary from
location-to-location and among the organizations, coverage of the nuances in
those rules is beyond this article.
Notes
1. ^ Block, David (2006). Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots
of the Game. Bison Books. 0803262558.
2. ^ Szymanski, Stefan, and Andrew S. Zimbalist (2006). National Pastime:
How Americans Play Baseball and the Rest of the World Plays Soccer
(Brookings Institution Press, 2005), ISBN 0815782586, p. 220, n. 19.
3. ^ Szymanski and Zimbalist (2006), p. 220, n. 19.
4. ^ How Products Are Made: Baseball
5. ^ The "third strike rule", which has been on the books since the time of
the Knickerbocker Rules, is that the batter can try to advance to first base
on the third strike, if the third strike is not caught. However, the batter
is not permitted to advance if first base is occupied, unless there are
already two outs. This is to prevent the catcher from dropping the ball on
purpose and setting up a potential double or triple play. The underlying
concept is the same as the "Infield Fly Rule", to curb defensive
shenanigans. Both rules change when there are two outs, because then there
is no defensive advantage to dropping the ball on purpose. Statistically,
such a play still counts as a strikeout for the pitcher, plus either a
passed ball charged to the catcher or a wild pitch charged to the pitcher,
so if the batter advances safely to first on such a play, it is possible for
a pitcher to record 4 (or more) strikeouts in one inning. Such has happened
several dozen times in the history of the major leagues, and at least one
time in the minor leagues a pitcher has recorded 5.
6. ^ Hal Bodley, "Baseball wants just a few more minutes", USAToday.com, 26
February 2004
7. ^ Jeff Greenfield, "Midnight Baseball", Time.com, 13 July 1998
8. ^ Hal Bodley, "Baseball wants just a few more minutes", USAToday.com, 26
February 2004
9. ^ Hal Bodley, "Baseball wants just a few more minutes", USAToday.com, 26
February 2004
10. ^ Jeff Greenfield, "Midnight Baseball", Time.com, 13 July 1998
11. ^ An informative account of the use of statistics throughout baseball
history is Alan Schwarz, The Numbers Game: Baseball’s Lifelong Fascination
with Statistics (New York: St. Martin's, 2005) (ISBN 0-312-32223-2).
Sources and further reading
Published
* Robert K. Barney and Nancy Bouchier, "A Critical Examination of a Source
in Early Ontario Baseball: The Reminiscence of Adam E. Ford," Journal of
Sport History (1988)
* Joe Brinkman and Charlie Euchner, The Umpire's Handbook, rev. ed. (1987)
* Bob Elliott, The Northern Game: Baseball the Canadian Way (Sport Classic,
2005)
* Charles Euchner, The Last Nine Innings: Inside the Real Game Fans Never
See (2006)
* William Humber, Diamonds of the North: A Concise History of Baseball in
Canada (Oxford University Press, 1995)
* Bill James and John Dewan, Bill James Presents the Great American Baseball
Stat Book, ed. by Geoff Beckman et al. (1987)
* Bill James, The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract (ISBN
0-7432-2722-0)
* Mark Kearney, "Baseball's Canadian Roots: Abner Who?" The Beaver:
Exploring Canada's History (October-November 1994)
* Michael Mandelbaum, The Meaning of Sports (PublicAffairs) (ISBN
1-58648-252-1)
* Robert Peterson, Only the Ball Was White (1984 [1970])
* Joseph L. Reichler (ed.), The Baseball Encyclopedia, 7th rev. ed. (1988)
* Lawrence Ritter and Donald Honig, The Image of Their Greatness: An
Illustrated History of Baseball from 1900 to the Present, updated ed. (1984)
* Lawrence S. Ritter (comp.), The Glory of Their Times: The Story of the
Early Days of Baseball Told by the Men Who Played It, new ed. (1984)
* Seth Swirsky, Baseball Letters, A Fan's Correspondence With His Heroes
(Crown Books, 1996).
* David Quentin Voigt, Baseball, an Illustrated History (1987)
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