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Horses:
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Horse
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Equidae
Genus: Equus
Species: E. caballus
Binomial name
Equus caballus
Linnaeus, 1758
The horse (Equus caballus, sometimes seen as a subspecies of the Wild Horse,
Equus ferus caballus) is a large odd-toed ungulate mammal, one of ten modern
species of the genus Equus. Horses have long been among the most
economically important domesticated animals; although their importance has
declined with mechanization, they are still found worldwide. The horse is
prominent in religion, mythology, and art; it has played an important role
in transportation, agriculture, and war; it has served as a source of food,
fuel, and clothing.
Most breeds of horses are able to perform work such as carrying humans on
their backs or be harnessed to pull objects such as carts or plows. However,
horse breeds were developed to allow horses to be specialized for certain
tasks; lighter horses for racing or riding, heavier horses for farming and
other tasks requiring pulling power. Some horses, such as the miniature
horse, can be kept as pets. In some societies, horses are a source of food,
both meat and milk; in others it is taboo to consume them. In industrialized
countries horses are predominantly kept for leisure and sporting pursuits,
while they are still used as working animals in many other parts of the
world.
Biology
Age
Depending on breed, management and environment, the domestic horse today has
a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. It is uncommon, but a few horses live
into their 40s, and, occasionally, beyond. The oldest verifiable record was
"Old Billy," a horse that lived in the 19th century to the age of 62.[1] In
modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in the Guinness Book of World
Records as the world's oldest then-living pony, died at age 56.[2]
Regardless of a horse's actual birthdate, for most competition purposes,
horses are considered a year older on January 1 of each year in the northern
hemisphere and July 1 in the southern hemisphere. The exception is endurance
riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the horse's actual
calendar age.
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:
* Foal: a horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is
sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a
weanling. Most domesticated foals are weaned at 4-6 months of age.
* Yearling: a horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.
* Colt: a male horse under the age of four.
* Filly: a female horse under the age of four.
* Mare: a female horse four years old and older.
* Stallion: a non-castrated male horse four years old and older. Some
people, particularly in the UK, refer to a stallion as a "horse."
* Gelding: A castrated male horse of any age, though for convenience sake,
many people also refer to a young gelding under the age of four as a
"colt."[3]
In horse racing the definitions of colt, filly, mare, and stallion or horse
may differ from those given above. In the United Kingdom, Thoroughbred horse
racing defines a colt as a male horse less than five years old and a filly
as a female horse less than five years old. In the USA,
both Thoroughbred racing and harness racing defines colts and fillies as
four years old and younger.[4]
A very rough estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its
teeth.
Size
The size of horses varies by breed, but can also be influenced by nutrition.
The general rule for cutoff in height between what is considered a horse and
a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands high. (abbreviated "h" or "hh") (147 cm, 58
inches) as measured at the withers. An animal 14.2h or over is usually
considered a horse and one less than 14.2h is a pony.[5]
However, there are exceptions to the general rule. Some smaller horse breeds
who typically produce individual horses both under and over 14.2h are
considered "horses" regardless of height. Likewise, some pony breeds, such
as the Pony of the Americas or the Welsh pony, share some features of horses
and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2h, but are still
considered ponies.
The difference between a horse and pony is not simply a height difference,
but also a difference in phenotype or appearance. There are noticeable
differences in conformation and temperament. Ponies often exhibit thicker
manes, tails and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs,
wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with
broad foreheads. They often have calmer temperaments than horses and also a
high level of equine intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate
with human handlers.[5]
Light riding horses such as Arabians, Morgans, or Quarter Horses usually
range in height from 14.0 (142 cm) to 16.0 hands (163 cm) and can weigh from
386 kilograms (850 lbs) to about 540 kg (1200 lbs). Larger riding horses
such as Thoroughbreds, American Saddlebreds or Warmbloods usually start at
about 15.2 hands (157 cm) and often are as tall as 17 hands (172 cm),
weighing from 500 kg (1100 lbs) to 680 kg (1500 lbs). Heavy or draft horses
such as the Clydesdale, Belgian, Percheron, and Shire are usually at least
16.0 (163 cm) to 18.0 hands (183 cm) high and can weigh from about 680 kg
(1500 lb) up to about 900 kg (2000 lb). Ponies cannot be taller than 14.2h,
but can be much smaller, down to the Shetland pony at around 10 hands, and
the Falabella which can be the size of a medium-sized dog. However, while
many miniature horse breeds are small as or smaller than a shetland pony,
because they are bred to have a horse phenotype (appearance), their breeders
and registries classify them as very small horses rather than ponies.
The largest horse in history was a Shire horse named Sampson, later renamed
Mammoth, foaled in 1846 in Bedfordshire, England. He stood 21.2˝ hands high
(i.e. 7 ft 2˝ in or 2.20 m ), and his peak weight was estimated at over
3,300 lb (approx 1.5 tonnes). The current record holder for the world's
smallest horse is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse affected by
dwarfism. She is 17 inches tall and weighs 60 pounds.[6]
Reproduction and development
Pregnancy lasts for approximately 335-340 days and usually results in one
foal (male: colt, female: filly). Twins are rare. Colts are usually carried
2-7 days longer than fillies. Females 4 years and over are called mares and
males are stallions. A castrated male is a gelding. Horses, particularly
colts, may sometimes be physically capable of reproduction at approximately
18 months but in practice are rarely allowed to breed until a minimum age of
3 years, especially females. Horses four years old are considered mature,
though the skeleton usually finishes developing at the age of six, and the
precise time of completion of development also depends on the horse's size
(therefore a connection to breed exists), gender, and the quality of care
provided by its owner. Also, if the horse is larger, its bones are larger;
therefore, not only do the bones take longer to actually form bone tissue
(bones are made of cartilage in earlier stages of bone formation), but the
epiphyseal plates (plates that fuse a bone into one piece by connecting the
bone shaft to the bone ends) are also larger and take longer to convert from
cartilage to bone as well. These plates convert after the other parts of the
bones do but are crucial to development.
Depending on maturity, breed and the tasks expected, young horses are
usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two
and four. Although Thoroughbred and American Quarter Horse race horses are
put on the track at as young as two years old in some countries (notably the
United States), horses specifically bred for sports such as show jumping and
dressage are generally not entered into top-level competition until a
minimum age of four years old, because their bones and muscles are not
solidly developed, nor is their advanced training complete. For endurance
riding competition, horses may not compete until they are a full 60 calendar
months (5 years) old.
Anatomy
Horses have, on average, a skeleton of 205 bones. A significant difference
in the bones contained in the horse skeleton, as compared to that of a
human, is the lack of a collarbone--their front limb system is attached to
the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons and ligaments that
attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's legs and hooves are also
unique, interesting structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently
from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's
"knee" is actually the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist.
Similarly, the hock, contains the bones equivalent to those in the human
ankle and heel. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of
the human hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is
actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single
equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal
phalanges, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also
has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin and hair,
bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues
that make up the hoof (see section hooves, below).[3]
Digestion
A horse is a herbivore with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of
grasses and other plant material, consumed regularly throughout the day, and
so they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to
facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 1000 pound horse will eat between
15 and 25 pounds (approximately 7-11 kg) of food per day and, under normal
use, drink 10 to 12 gallons (about 38-45 litres) of water. Horses are not
ruminants, so they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans,
they can also digest cellulose from grasses due to the presence of a "hind
gut" called the cecum, or "water gut," that food goes through before
reaching the large intestine. Unlike humans, horses cannot vomit, so
digestion problems can quickly spell trouble, with colic a leading cause of
death.
Teeth
Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors (six
upper and six lower), adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation,
at the front of the mouth. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the
premolars and molars, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have
four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth that
are called "tushes." Some horses, both male and female, will also develop
one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as
"wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with
the bit.
There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars
where the bit rests directly on the bars (gums) of the horse's mouth when
the horse is bridled.
The incisors show a distinct wear and growth pattern as the horse ages, as
well as change in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. The teeth
continue to erupt throughout life as they are worn down by grazing, and
while the diet and veterinary care of the horse can affect the rate of tooth
wear, a very rough estimate of the age of a horse can be made by looking at
its teeth.[3]
Hooves
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional
adage, "no foot, no horse." The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges,
the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by
cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae,
with the exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole made essentially of the
same material as a human fingernail. The end result is that a horse,
weighing on average 1,000 pounds, travels on the same bones as a human on
tiptoe. For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses
have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof
continually grows, just like a large fingernail, and needs to be trimmed
(and horseshoes reset, if used) every six to eight weeks.
Senses
The senses of a horse are generally superior to those of a human. As prey
animals, they must be aware of their surroundings at all times. They have
very large eyes (among land animals only the ostrich has a larger eye), with
excellent day and night vision, though they may have a limited range of
color vision. The side positioning of the eyes gives the horse a wide field
of vision of about 350°.[7] While not color-blind, studies indicate that
they have difficulty distinguishing greens, browns and grays. Their hearing
is good, and the pinna of their ears can rotate a full 360 degrees in order
to pick up sound from any direction. Their sense of smell, while much better
than that of humans, is not their strongest asset; they rely to a greater
extent on vision.
A horse's sense of balance is outstanding; the cerebellum of their brain is
highly developed and they are very aware of terrain and placement of their
feet. Horses' sense of touch is better developed than many people think;
they immediately notice when a fly or mosquito lands on them, even before
the insect attempts to bite. Their sense of taste is well-developed in order
to determine the nature of the plants they are eating, and their prehensile
lips can easily sort even the smallest grains. Horses will seldom eat most
poisonous plants or spoiled food unless they have no other choices, although
a few toxic plants have a chemical structure that appeals to animals, and
thus poses a greater risk of being ingested.
Behavior
Horses are prey animals with a well-developed fight-or-flight instinct.
Their first response to threat is to startle and usually flee, although they
are known to stand their ground and defend themselves or their offspring in
cases where flight is not possible, or when their young are threatened. They
also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant
to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from
something that they perceive as non-threatening. Through selective breeding,
some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain large draft
horses. However, most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed,
agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their
wild ancestors.
Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant
animal (usually a mare). Horses are also social creatures who are able to
form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals,
including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations
such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many
horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated. When this
behavior occurs while being handled by human, the horse is called
"herd-bound". However, through proper training, it is possible to teach any
horse to accept a human as a type of companion, and thus be comfortable away
from other horses.
When confined with insufficient companionship, exercise or stimulation,
horses may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly
psychological in origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving"
(rocking back and forth) and other problems.
Sleep patterns
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. They are able to
doze and enter light sleep while standing, an adaptation from life as a prey
animal in the wild. Lying down makes an animal more vulnerable to
predators.[8] Horses are able to sleep standing up because a "stay
apparatus" in their legs allows them to relax their muscles and doze without
collapsing.[9][10]
Unlike humans, horses do not need a solid, unbroken period of sleep time.
They obtain needed sleep by means of many short periods of rest. Horses may
spend anywhere from four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a
few minutes to several hours lying down. However, not all this time is the
horse actually asleep; total sleep time in a day may range from several
minutes to a couple of hours.[11] Horses require approximately two and a
half hours of sleep, on average, in a 24-hour period. Most of this sleep
occurs in many short intervals of about 15 minutes each.[12]
Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for an
hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements.[11]
However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will
become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it
involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing.[13] This condition
differs from narcolepsy, though horses may also suffer from that
disorder.[14]
Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while
others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept entirely alone will
not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for
danger.[11]
Gaits
All horses move naturally with four basic gaits: the walk, trot or jog,
canter or lope, and gallop.
Besides these basic gaits, some horses pace, instead of trot. In addition,
there are many "ambling" gaits such as the slow gait, rack, fox trot running
walk, and tölt. These special gaits are often found in specific breeds,
often referred to as "gaited" horses because they naturally possess
additional gaits that are approximately the same speed as the trot but
smoother to ride. Technically speaking, "gaited horses" replace the standard
trot (which is a 2 beat gait) with one of the four beat gaits.
Horse breeds with additional gaits that often occur naturally include the
Tennessee Walking Horse which naturally performs a running walk, the
American Saddlebred which can be trained to exhibit a slow gait and the
rack, Paso Fino, which has two ambling gaits, the paso corto and paso largo,
and Icelandic horses which are known for the tölt. The fox trot is found in
several breeds, most notably the Missouri Foxtrotter. Standardbreds,
depending on bloodlines and training, may either pace or trot.
Horse Care
Horses are animals that evolved to graze. Therefore, they eat grass or hay,
sometimes supplemented with grain. They require a plentiful supply of clean
water, a minimum of 10 to 12 gallons per day per horse. Although horses are
adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and rain. Horses
require annual vaccinations to protect against various diseases, need
routine hoof care by a farrier, and regular dental examinations from a
veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist. If horses are kept inside in a
barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and
mental well-being. When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy
fences to be safely contained.
Evolution
The horse as it is known today adapted by evolution to survive in areas of
wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where
other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, could not.[15]
Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla,
a relatively ancient group of browsing and grazing animals that first arose
less than 10 million years after the dinosaurs became extinct. In the past,
this order contained twelve families, but only three families— Equidae (the
horse and related species), the tapir and the rhinoceros—have survived to
the present day. The earliest equids known as Hyracotherium developed
approximately 54 million years ago, during the Eocene period. One of the
first true horse species, it had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on
each back foot. the extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared, and by the
Pleistocene era, as the horse adapted to a drier, prairie environment, the
2nd and 4th toes disappeared on all feet, and horses became bigger. These
side toes first shrunk in size until they have vanished in modern horses.
All that remains are a set of small vestigial bones on either side of the
cannon (metacarpal or metatarsal) bone, known informally as splint bones,
which are a frequent source of splints, a common injury in the modern horse.
Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared and until they were a
hoofed animal capable of running at great speed.
Over millions of years, equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft,
tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, and grazing of
tougher plains grasses. Thus the proto-horses changed from leaf-eating
forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide,
including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America. For
reasons not fully understood, Equus caballus disappeared from North America
around 10,000 years ago, at the end of the last Ice Age.[16]
Domestication and surviving wild species
Competing theories exist as to the time and place of initial domestication.
The earliest evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from Central
Asia and dates to approximately 4,500 BC. Archaeological finds such as the
Sintashta chariot burials provided unequivocal evidence that the horse was
definitely domesticated by 2000 BC.[3]
Wild prototypes and modern species
Most "wild" horses today are actually feral horses (see feral horses,
below), animals that had domesticated ancestors but were themselves born and
live in the wild, often for generations. However, there are also some truly
wild horses whose ancestors were never successfully domesticated.
The "Four Foundations" theory
There is a theory that there were four basic "proto" horses that developed
with adaptations to their environment prior to domestication. There are
competing theories, some arguing that the prototypes were separate species,
others suggesting that the prototypes were physically different
manifestations of the same species. Either way, the most common theories of
historical wild species from which other types are thought to have developed
suggests the following base prototypes:[17]
* The "Warmblood subspecies" or "Forest Horse" (Equus ferus silvaticus, also
called the Diluvial Horse), thought to have evolved into Equus ferus
germanicus, and which may have contributed to the development of the
warmblood horses of northern Europe, as well as older "heavy horses" such as
the Ardennais.
* The "Draft" subspecies, a small, sturdy, heavyset animal with a heavy hair
coat, arising in northern Europe, adapted to cold, damp climates, somewhat
resembling today's draft horse and even the Shetland pony
* The "Oriental" subspecies, a taller, slim, refined and agile animal
arising in western Asia, adapted to hot, dry climates, thought to be the
progenitor of the modern Arabian horse and Akhal-Teke
* The "Tarpan subspecies," dun-colored, sturdy animal, the size of a large
pony, adapted to the cold, dry climates of northern Asia, the predecessor to
the Tarpan and Przewalski's Horse as well as the domesticated Mongolian
horse.
Species surviving into modern times
The tarpan, Equus ferus ferus, survived into the historical era, but became
extinct in 1879. Its genetic line is lost, but its phenotype has been
recreated by a "breeding back" process, in which living domesticated horses
with primitive features were repeatedly interbred. Thanks to the efforts of
the brothers Lutz Heck (director of the Berlin zoo) and Heinz Heck (director
of Munich Tierpark Hellabrunn), the resulting Heck horse together with the
Konik resembles the tarpan more closely than any other living horse.
Przewalski's Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), a rare Asian species, is the
only true wild horse alive today. Also known as the Mongolian Wild Horse,
Mongolians know it as the taki, while the Kirghiz people call it a kirtag.
Small wild breeding populations of this animal, named after the Russian
explorer Przewalski, exist in Mongolia.[18] There are also small populations
maintained at zoos throughout the world. After a battle against extinction,
the Przewalksi's Horse is finally flourishing in the wild once again.
Other truly wild equids alive today include the zebra and the onager.
Feral horses
Feral animals, who had domesticated ancestors but were born and live in the
wild, are distinct from wild animals, whose ancestors have never undergone
domestication. Several populations of feral horses exist, including those in
the western United States and Canada (often called "mustangs"), and in parts
of Australia ("brumbies") and New Zealand ("Kaimanawa horses"). Isolated
feral populations are often named for their geographic location: Namibia has
its Namib Desert Horses; the Sorraia lives in Spain and Portugal; Sable
Island Horses reside in Nova Scotia, Canada; and New Forest ponies have been
part of Hampshire, England for a thousand years.
Studies of feral horses have provided useful insights into the behavior of
ancestral wild horses, as well as greater understanding of the instincts and
behaviours that drive horses.
Other modern equids
Other members of the horse family include zebras, donkeys, and onagers. The
Donkey, Burro or Domestic Ass, Equus asinus, like the horse, has many
breeds. A mule is a hybrid of a male ass (jack) and a mare, and is usually
infertile. A hinny is the less common hybrid of a female ass (jenny) and a
stallion. Breeders have also tried crossing various species of zebra with
mares or female asses to produce "zebra mules" (zorses, and zonkeys (also
called zedonks)). This will probably remain a novelty hybrid as these
individuals tend to inherit some of the undomesticated nature of their zebra
parent, but they may inherit the zebra's resistance to nagana pest: zorses,
also called zebroids, have been used in Central African game parks for light
haulage.
Horses within the human economy
Around the world, horses play a role within human economies, for leisure,
sport and working purposes. To cite one example, the American Horse Council
estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy
of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is
considered, the impact is over $102 billion.[19]
In wealthier, First World, industrialized economies, horses are primarily
used in recreational pursuits and competitive sports, though they also have
practical uses in police work, cattle ranching, search and rescue, and other
duties where terrain or conditions preclude use of motorized vehicles. In
poorer, Third World economies, they may also be used for recreational
purposes by the elite population, but serve a much wider role in working
pursuits including farming, ranching and as a means of transportation. To a
very limited extent, they are also still used in warfare, particularly in
regions of extremely rugged terrain.
Sport
Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in many different sporting events
and competitions. Examples include horse shows, gymkhana and O-Mok-See,
rodeos, endurance riding, fox hunting, and Olympic-level events such as
three-day eventing, combined driving, dressage, and show jumping. Although
scoring varies by event, most emphasize the horse's speed, maneuverability,
obedience and/or precision. Sometimes the equitation, the style and ability
of the rider, is also considered.
Sports such as polo and horseball do not judge the horse itself, but rather
use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the
game. Although the horse assists this process and requires specialized
training to do so, the details of its performance are not judged, only the
result of the rider's actions -- be it getting a ball through a goal or some
other achievement. Examples of these sports of partnership between human and
animal also include jousting (reenacting the skills used by medieval
knights), where the main goal is for one rider to dismount the other, and
buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia, the aim being to
capture a goat carcass while on horseback.[20]
The most widely known use of horses for sport is horse racing, seen in
almost every nation in the world. There are three types: "flat" racing;
steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where horses
trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky.
Most race horses in the developed world are Thoroughbreds, a breed which can
reach speeds up to 40 mph/70 km/h. In the case of a specialized sprinting
breed, the American Quarter Horse, speeds over 50 mph have been clocked. In
harness racing, performed by Standardbred horses, speeds over 30 mph have
been measured. A major part of the economic importance of horse racing, as
for many sports, lies in the gambling associated with it.
Work
There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no amount of technology
appears able to supersede. Mounted police horses are still effective for
crowd control. Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up
cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain. Search and rescue
organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people,
particularly hikers and hunters, who are lost in remote areas.
Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be
efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture less use of fossil fuels,
reduced soil compaction and degrading of soil structure can be seen over
time with the use of draft animals such as horses. In forestry, logging can
be done with horses and can result in reduced damage to soil structure and
less damage to trees due to more selective logging.
Horses can also be used in other areas where it is necessary to avoid
vehicular disruption to delicate soil. Examples include areas such as a
nature reserve. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in
wilderness areas. They are also quieter than motorized vehicles. Peace
officers such as rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols, and
horses may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough
terrain where vehicles are less effective.
In poor countries such as Romania, Kyrgyzstan, and many parts of the Third
World, horses, donkeys and mules are routinely used for transport and
agriculture. In areas where roads are poor or non-existent and fossil fuels
are scarce or the terrain rugged, riding horseback is still the most
efficient way to get from place to place.
Entertainment and culture
Modern horses are often used to re-enact their historical work purpose. One
famous example is the Budweiser Clydesdales. This team of draft horses pull
a beer wagon in a manner similar to that used prior to the invention of the
modern motorized truck.
Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously
recreated replica, in various historical reenactments of specific periods of
history, and especially famous battles. Popular subjects include American
Revolutionary War and Civil War reenactments, as well as battles of the 19th
century between the U.S. Cavalry and Native Americans, such as the Battle of
the Little Bighorn.
Horses also are used preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial
purposes. Examples include the use of horses at tourist destinations such as
Colonial Williamsburg or the presence of cavalry horses at significant
funerals of military figures and heads of state. Countries such as the
United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and VIPs to
and from certain culturally significant events.
Horses are frequently used in television and motion pictures to add
authenticity to historical dramas as well as adding charm to films set in
modern-day, or even futuristic science fiction settings.
Assisted learning and therapeutic purposes
People with disabilities obtain beneficial results from association with
horses. The movement of a horse strengthens muscles throughout a rider's
body and promotes better overall health. In many cases, riding has also led
to increased mobility for the rider. Horses also provide psychological
benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. The benefits of
equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized
with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and
recognition of para-equestrian events by the FEI.
Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different
physical, occupational and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize
equine movement. In the hippotherapy environment, a therapist uses the
horse's movement to provide carefully graded sensory input, whereas
therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.
"Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" psychotherapy uses horses as
companion animals to assist people with psychological problems. Actual
practices vary widely due to the newness of the field; some programs include
Therapeutic Horseback Riding and hippotherapy. Non-riding therapies simply
encourage a person to touch, speak to and otherwise interact with the horse.
People appear to benefit from being able to be around a horse; horses are
very sensitive to non-verbal communication and are an ideal resource for
working with individuals who have "tuned out" human therapists.
Equine Assisted Learning (EAL), Equine guided education, or equine assisted
professional development, is another relatively new field of experiential
learning for corporate, professional and personal development.
There also have been experimental programs using horses in prison settings.
Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates in a prison
setting and help reduce recidivism when they leave. A correctional facility
in Nevada has a successful program where inmates learn to train young
mustangs captured off the range in order to make it more likely that these
horses will find adoptive homes. Both adult and juvenile prisons in New
York, Florida, and Kentucky work in cooperation with the Thoroughbred
Retirement Foundation to re-train former racehorses as pleasure mounts and
find them new homes. Horses are also used in camps and
programs for young people with emotional difficulties.
Warfare
Horses in warfare have been seen for most of recorded history, dating back
at least to the 19th century B.C. While mechanization largely has replaced
the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited
military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and
transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are
ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed
militias in the Darfur conflict in attacks against unarmed civilians.
Distribution
The FAO reports that in 2003, China was the top horse market in the world
closely followed by Brazil and Mexico.
Products
* Horse meat has been used as food for animals and humans throughout the
ages. It is eaten in many parts of the world and is an export industry in
the United States and other countries. Bills have been introduced in both
the House and the Senate which would put an end to this practice in the
United States. Horse consumption is taboo in some cultures.
* Mare's milk is used by people with large horse-herds, such as the Mongols.
They may let it ferment to produce kumis. Mares produce a lower yield of
milk than cows, but more than goats and sheep.
* Horse blood was also used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes.
The Mongols found this food source especially convenient when riding for
long periods of time. Drinking their own horse's blood allowed the Mongols
to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat.
* Premarin is a mixture of female hormones (estrogens) extracted from the
urine of pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urine). It is a widely used drug
for hormone replacement therapy. This horse product is especially
controversial; see the Premarin article.
* The tail hair of the horse is used for making bows for stringed
instruments such as the violin, viola, cello and double bass.
* Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets, baseballs,[21]
and baseball gloves.[22] The saba is a horsehide vessel used in the
production of kumis. Horsehide can be used to produce animal glue.
* Horse hooves can be used to produce hoof glue.
* Horse bones can be used to make implements. Specifically, in Italian
cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto, which is
used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.[23]
Specialized vocabulary
Because horses and humans have lived and worked together for thousands of
years, an extensive specialized vocabulary has arisen to describe virtually
every horse behavioral and anatomical characteristic with a high degree of
precision.
The anatomy of the horse comes with a large number of horse specific terms.
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, and
a specialized vocabulary has evolved to describe them. Often, one will refer
to a horse in the field by its coat color rather than by breed or by sex.
The genetics of the coat colors has largely been resolved, although
discussion continues about some of the details.[24]
The English-speaking world measures the height of horses in hands,
abbreviated "h" or "hh," and is measured at the highest point of an animal's
withers. One hand is 4 Imperial inches, or, as defined in British law, 101.6
mm. Intermediate heights are defined by hands and inches, rounding to the
lower measurement in hands, followed by a decimal point and the number of
additional inches between 1 and 3. Thus a horse described as 15.2 hh tall,
means it is 15 hands, 2 inches, or 62 inches/1.57 m in height.[3]
The origin of modern breeds
Horses come in various sizes and shapes. The draft breeds can top 19 hands
(2 metres, 76 inches) while the smallest miniature horses stand as low as
5.2 hands (0.56 metres, 22 inches). The Patagonian Fallabella, usually
considered the smallest horse in the world, compares in size to a German
Shepherd Dog.
Different schools of thought exist to explain how this range of size and
shape came about. One school, which some refer to as the "Four Foundations",
(see Domestication of the horse and surviving wild species, above), suggests
that the modern horse evolved from multiple types of early wild pony and
horse prototypes; the differences between these types account for the
differences in type of the modern breeds. A second school - the "Single
Foundation" - holds only one type of wild horse underwent domestication, and
it diverged in form after domestication through human selective breeding (or
in the case of feral horses, through ecological pressures). This question
will most likely only be resolved once geneticists have finished evaluating
the horse genome, analyzing DNA and mitochondrial DNA to construct family
trees. See: Domestication of the horse.
In either case, modern horse breeds developed in response to the need for
"form to function"; that is, the necessity to develop certain physical
characteristics necessary to perform a certain type of work. Thus, light,
refined horses such as the Arabian horse or the Akhal-Teke developed in dry
climates to be fast and with great endurance over long distances, while
heavy draft horse such as the Belgian developed out of a need to pull plows
and perform other farm work. Ponies of all breeds developed out of a dual
need to create mounts suitable for children as well as for work in small
places like mine shafts or in areas where there was insufficient forage to
support larger draft animals. In between these extremes, horses were bred to
be particularly suitable for tasks that included pulling carriages, carrying
heavily-armored knights, jumping, racing, herding other animals, and packing
supplies.
Some countries specialize in breeding horses suitable for particular
activities. For example, Australia, the United States, and the Patagonia
region of South America are known for breeding horses particularly suitable
for working cattle and other livestock. Germany produces many Warmblood
breeds that are used for dressage. Ireland is recognized for breeding
hunters and jumpers. Spain and Portugal are known for the Iberian horse
breeds used in high school dressage and bullfighting. Austria is known
worldwide for its Lipizzaner horses, used for dressage and high school work
in the famous Spanish Riding School in Vienna. The United Kingdom breeds an
array of heavy draft horses and several breeds of hardy ponies. Both the
United States and Great Britain are noted for breeding Thoroughbred race
horses. Russia takes great pride in breeding harness racing horses, a
tradition dating back to the development of the Orlov Trotter in the 18th
century.
Breeds, studbooks, purebreds, and landraces
Selective breeding of horses has occurred as long as humans have
domesticated them. However, the concept of controlled breed registries has
gained much wider importance during the 20th century. One of the earliest
formal registries was General Stud Book for thoroughbreds,[25] a process
that started in 1791 tracing back to the foundation sires for that breed.
These sires were Arabians, brought to England from the Middle East.
The Arabs had a reputation for breeding their prize Arabian mares to only
the most worthy stallions, and kept extensive pedigrees of their "asil"
(purebred) horses. Though these pedigrees were primarily transmitted via an
oral tradition, written pedigrees of Arabian horses can be found that date
to the 14th century. During the late Middle Ages the Carthusian monks of
southern Spain, themselves forbidden to ride, bred horses which nobles
throughout Europe prized; the lineage survives to this day in the Andalusian
horse or caballo de pura raza espanol.
The modern landscape of breed designation presents a complicated picture.
Some breeds have closed studbooks; a registered Thoroughbred or Arabian must
have two registered parents of the same breed, and no other criteria for
registration apply.[26][27] Other breeds tolerate limited infusions from
other breeds; for example, the modern Appaloosa must have at least one
Appaloosa parent but may also have a Quarter Horse, Thoroughbred, or Arabian
parent and must also exhibit spotted coloration to gain full
registration.[28] The Quarter Horse normally requires both parents to be
registered Quarter Horses, but allows "Appendix" registration of horses with
one Thoroughbred parent, and the horse may earn its way to full registration
by completing certain performance requirements.[29] Still other breeds, such
as most of the warmblood sport horses, require individual judging of an
individual animal's quality before registration or breeding approval, but
also allow outside bloodlines in if the horses meet the standard.
Breed registries also differ as to their acceptance or rejection of breeding
technology. For example, all Jockey Club Thoroughbred registries require
that a registered Thoroughbred be a product of a natural mating (live cover
in horse parlance). A foal born of two Thoroughbred parents, but by means of
artificial insemination or embryo transfer is barred from the Thoroughbred
studbook. Any Thoroughbred bred outside of these constraints can, however,
become part of the Performance Horse Registry.[26]
On the other hand, since the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, most
breed registries now allow artificial insemination (AI), embryo transfer
(ET), or both. The high value of stallions has helped with the acceptance of
these techniques because they 1) allow a stallion to breed more mares with
each "collection," and 2) take away the risk of injury during mating.
Hot bloods, warm bloods, and cold bloods
Horses are mammals and as such are all warm-blooded creatures, as opposed to
reptiles, which are cold-blooded. However, these words have developed a
separate meaning in the context of equine description, with the
"hot-bloods", such as race horses, exhibiting more sensitivity and energy,
while the "cold-bloods" are heavier, calmer creatures such as the draft
giants.
Hot bloods
Arabian horses, whether originating on the Arabian peninsula or from the
European studs (breeding establishments) of the 18th and 19th centuries,
gained the title of "hot bloods" for their temperament, characterized by
sensitivity, keen awareness, athleticism, and energy. European breeders
wished to infuse some of this energy and athleticism into their own best
cavalry horses. These traits, combined with the lighter, aesthetically
refined bone structure of the oriental-type horse (Akhal-Teke, Arabian,
Barb), were used as the foundation of the thoroughbred breed.
True hot bloods usually offer both greater riding challenges and rewards
than other horses. Their sensitivity and intelligence enable quick learning
with greater communication and cooperation with their riders. However, their
intelligence also allows them to learn bad habits as quickly as good ones.
Because of this, they also can quickly lose trust in a poor rider and do not
tolerate inept or abusive training practices.
Cold bloods
Muscular and heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they have
been bred to have the calm, steady, patient temperament needed to pull a
plow or a heavy carriage full of people. One of the best-known draft breeds
is the Belgian. The largest is the Shire. The Clydesdales, with their common
coloration of a bay or black coat with white legs and long-haired,
"feathered" fetlocks are among the most easily recognized.
Warmbloods
"Warmblood" breeds began when the European carriage and war horses were
crossed with oriental horses or thoroughbreds. The term "warm blood" was
originally used to mean any cross of heavy horses on Thoroughbred or Arabian
horses. Examples included breeds such as the Irish Draught horse, and
sometimes also referred to the "Baroque" horses used for "high school"
dressage, such as the Lipizzaner, Andalusian, Lusitano and the Alter Real.
Sometimes the term was even used to refer to breeds of light riding horse
other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse. But today
the term "warmblood" usually refers to a group of sport horse breeds that
have dominated the Olympic Games and World Equestrian Games in Dressage and
Show Jumping since the 1950s. These breeds include the Hanoverian,
Oldenburg, Trakehner, Holsteiner, Swedish Warmblood, and Dutch Warmblood.
The list of horse breeds provides a partial alphabetical list of breeds of
horse extant today, plus a discussion of rare breeds' conservation.
Riding methods
Saddling and mounting
The common European practice and tradition of saddling and mounting the
horse from the left hand side is widely believed to originate from the
practice of right-handed fighters carrying their sheathed sword on their
left hip, making it easier to throw their right leg over the horse when
mounting. However, several other explanations are equally also plausible.
Horses can be mounted bareback with a vault from the ground, by grabbing the
mane to provide leverage as a rider makes a small jump and scrambles up onto
the horse's back (an awkward but popular method used by children), or by
"bellying over", a technique which involves placing both hands side by side
on the horse's back, jumping up so that the rider lays belly down on the
horse's back, and swinging the leg over to sit astride. In actual practice,
however, most bareback riders use a fence, mounting block, or other object
which can be stood upon to be able to simply slide onto the horse's back.
This method is more convenient for both horse and rider, as the horse is
more comfortable not being accidentally jabbed by the legs and arms of the
rider, and any method of mounting without a saddle can be difficult for the
rider, especially if the horse is tall.
Control of the horse
Riders communicate with the horse through commands called aids. The main
natural aids of the rider are the legs, the seat, the hands (through the
reins) and the voice (used less often than other aids). The rider's legs
generally tell the horse to move forward or to turn. The hands help to guide
the horse in the direction of the turn, and ask the horse to either slow his
tempo or to slow from a faster gait to a slower one. The seat is the most
difficult aid to develop, and can communicate to the horse not only to speed
up, but also to turn and slow down.
Correct position allows for the rider to communicate effectively without
getting in the way of the horse. Additionally, the position is slightly
modified according to the type of riding that is being performed. Like most
arts, riding takes years of practice to become competent, as the riders work
to refine their aids and position, and learn "feel" (or what the horse is
doing underneath them).
Types of riding
Since the horse was domesticated, a wide variety of riding methods or styles
have developed, all of which balance the need to allow the horse freedom of
movement in activities such as horse racing or show jumping and the need for
security of the rider, precision of commands and overall control as seen in
activities such as dressage and reining. Worldwide, the most common modern
riding style is referred to as English riding, which is a broad style that
encompasses most Olympic Equestrian competition, and includes such specific
styles as dressage, hunt seat, show jumping and saddle seat, among many
others. Western riding is a popular style seen in North America, derived
from the traditions of Spain, modified to fit the needs of cattle ranchers.
A similar riding style is seen with the Stockman of Australia.
Miscellaneous
Heraldry
The horse frequently occurs as a charge in heraldry. The horse can be in the
"attitude" (position) "courant" (running), and when so depicted has both his
fore and hind legs together, even though the position is impossible for the
natural horse.
Zodiac
The horse features in the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the
Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. According to Chinese
folklore, each animal is associated with certain personality traits, and
those born in the year of the horse are: intelligent, independent and
free-spirited. See: Horse (Zodiac).
References
1. ^ The Mane Facts About Horse Health URL accessed January 22, 2007.
2. ^ Ryder, Erin. "World's Oldest Living Pony Dies at 56." The Horse online
news. Accessed may 31, 2007 at http://www.thehorse.com/viewarticle.aspx?ID=9708
3. ^ a b c d e Ensminger, M. E. Horses and Horsemanship: Animal Agriculture
Series. Sixth Edition. Interstate Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0-8134-2883-1
4. ^ Glossary of Horse racing Terms
5. ^ a b Ensminger Horses and Tack Rev. Ed. p. 11-12
6. ^ "Meet Thumbelina, the World's Smallest Horse," Daily Mail, October 8,
2006
7. ^ Barnett, Keith C., et al, Equine Opthalmology London: Elsevier
Saunders, 2004. ISBN 0702027480
8. ^ Do Horses Sleep Standing Up? Web site, accessed March 23, 2007
9. ^ How Horses Sleep Web Site, accessed March 23, 2007
10. ^ "How can horses sleep when standing?" Web site, accessed March 23,
2007
11. ^ a b c "How Horses Sleep, Pt. 2 - Power Naps" Web site, accessed March
23, 2007
12. ^ "Did you hear the one about the policeman's horse?" Web site, accessed
March 23, 2007
13. ^ Equine Sleep Disorder videos. Web site accessed March 23, 2007
14. ^ "Did you hear the one about the policeman's horse?" Web site, accessed
March 23, 2007
15. ^ Budiansky, Stephen. The Nature of Horses. Free Press, 1997. ISBN
0-684-82768-9
16. ^ "Nature" information on horses
17. ^ Bennett, Deb. Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship. Amigo
Publications Inc; 1st edition 1998. ISBN 0-9658533-0-6
18. ^ http://www.treemail.nl/takh/
19. ^ http://www.cthorsecouncil.org/AHC2005JuneEconStudy.pdf Most
Comprehensive Horse Study Ever Reveals A Nearly $40 Billion Impact On The
U.S. Economy, June 20, 2005.
20. ^ "Buzkashi"
21. ^ http://www.baseball-fever.com/showthread.php?p=309566
22. ^ http://store.rawlings.com/info/index.jsp?categoryId=972842&infoPath=222974
23. ^ Eating Up Italy: Voyages on a Vespa by Matthew Fort. 2005, p171. ISBN
0-00-721481-2
24. ^ UC Davis Coat Color Site accessed on July 5, 2007
25. ^ http://www.imh.org/imh/bw/tbred.html#hist
26. ^ a b American Stud Book Principal Rules and Requirements accessed on
July 5, 2007.
27. ^ Arabian Horse Association 2007 Rules & Regulations accessed on July 5,
2007
28. ^ Appaloosa Horse Club Handbook 2007 accessed July 5, 2007
29. ^ AQHA Registration Rules and Regulations accessed July5, 2007
Bibliography and Further reading
* Book of Horses: A Complete Medical Reference Guide for Horses and Foals,
edited by Mordecai Siegal. (By members of the faculty and staff, University
of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine.) Harper Collins, 1996.
* Illustrated Atlas of Clinical Equine Anatomy and Common Disorders of the
Horse, by Ronald J. Riegal, D.V.M. and Susan E. Hakola, B.S., R.N., C.M.I.
Equistar Publications, Ltd., 1996.
* International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. Opinion 2027
(Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are
pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals
(Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Bull.Zool.Nomencl.,
60:81-84.
* Bennett, Deb. Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship. Amigo
Publications Inc; 1st edition 1998. ISBN 0-9658533-0-6
* Budiansky, Stephen. The Nature of Horses. Free Press, 1997. ISBN
0-684-82768-9
* Ensminger, M. E. Horses and Horsemanship: Animal Agriculture Series. Sixth
Edition. Interstate Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0-8134-2883-1
* Ensminger, M. E. Horses and Tack Revised Edition Boston: Houghton Mifflin
1991 ISBN 0-395-54413-0
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